Commentary on the poem “Barbie Doll” by Marge Piercy Essay

The sonnet â€Å"Barbie Doll† manages the life of a young lady who had a plastic medical procedure. It is partitioned in four sections which portray the life of the young lady ordered. Portraying the adolescence of the young lady the main section of the sonnet needs to accentuate how early young ladies are driven into the job of parenthood and gentility. The girl’s first presents are dolls which can pee (â€Å"†¦and introduced dolls that peed pee†). Those dolls are the main encounter with her later assignment of being a mother. Moreover she gets a smaller than normal broiler which is associated with her later assignment of working in the kitchen (â€Å"†¦and scaled down GE ovens and irons†). I expansion to that she gets her first excellence items. (â€Å"†¦ and small lipsticks the shade of cherry candy†) This is her first showdown with excellence and sexuality. Those presents drive the young lady into a job which interfaces gentility with parenthood, home life and magnificence. The peot begins giving purpose behind her plastic medical procedure as of now in the principal passage. Subsequent to receiving this job the young ladies is insulted when a cohort called her terrible (â€Å"†¦You have an incredible large nose and fat legs.†)This is a significant sentence of the sonnet since this is the primary purpose behind her plastic medical procedure. The subsequent section shows that the general public pushed her succseful into the job of a generalization lady. Hence she has a very low self-gauge since she doesn't fit this steriotype. She is a sound wise young lady yet she continues saying 'sorry' for her external appearance since she doesn't fit the generalization of a beatiful lady ( â€Å"She was solid, tried intelligent†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ;†She went forward and backward apologizing†;†possessed solid arms and back†). Besides she has a plenteous sexual drive, which isn't fulfilled as she would see it in view of her external appearance (â€Å"†¦abundant sexual drive and manual dexterity.†)The last line of the subsequent section is incongruity. It doesn't state how she is seen by the remainder of the world yet how she sees her self (â€Å"Everyone saw a fat nose on thick legs†). This sentence is associated with the last sentence of the principal passage. It shows how she received her cohorts perspective about her body. This underscores her extremely low confidence. The third section underscores her endeavors to become beatiful and sexual fulfilled. The principal sentence of this section shows what she’s advised to do so as to satisfie her rich sexual drive. (â€Å"She was encouraged to play demure, urged to come on healthy, work out, diet, grin and wheedle.†) Using symbolism of a killing fan belt the writer stresses how quick this endeavors accomplished the oppsite ( â€Å"Her considerate mindset destroyed like a fan belt†) Her last exertion is to have a plastic medical procedure. († So she cut of her nose and her legs and offered them up†). Utilizing this sort of definition ( â€Å"†¦ cut off†¦offered them up†) this plastic medical procedure seems like a conciliatory contribution. What's more, it is intended to seem like that since it is a contribution to the general public. She offers her own body so as to satisfy others. The last section gives her achievments of her endeavors and that she is as yet unsettled. The main sentence portrays how close she looks to the generalization. She truly is an image for magnificence now. († †¦ a turned up clay nose, wearing a pink and white nightie†) In her assessment everyone considers her to be an excellent lady now. Yet, the artist put a question mark in that sentence since excellence is as yet an issue of taste. She will never fulfill everyone! († Doesn’t she look lovely? Everybody said.†). With her new magnificence she gets sexual fulfilled ( â€Å"Consummation at last.†) Finishing the sonnet with an amusing sentence the artist needs to show that she isn't really cheerful now . († To each lady a cheerful ending†) Furthermore she receives the girl’s story to the remainder of the female world so as to pass on that plastic medical procedures are a bit much. Also, they don't really fulfill you since it isn't acceptable to surrender the own body so as to fit in any sorts of generalizations.

A Definition of Collaborative vs Cooperative Learning Essay

I have been scanning for a long time for the Holy Grail of intelligent learning, a differentiation among community oriented and agreeable learning definitions. I am drawing nearer to my slippery objective constantly yet I am as yet not totally happy with my view of the two ideas. I accept my disarray emerges when I see forms related with every idea and see some cover or between idea use. I will make an unassuming endeavor to explain this inquiry by introducing my definitions and inspecting those of different creators who have explained my reasoning. Joint effort is a way of thinking of communication and individual way of life though participation is a structure of collaboration intended to encourage the achievement of a finished result or objective. Cooperative learning (CL) is an individual way of thinking, not only a homeroom procedure. In all circumstances where individuals meet up in gatherings, it proposes a method for managing individuals which regards and features singular gathering members’ capacities and commitments. There is a sharing of power and acknowledgment of obligation among bunch individuals for the gatherings activities. The hidden reason of collective learning depends on agreement working through participation by bunch individuals, as opposed to rivalry in which people best other gathering individuals. CL specialists apply this way of thinking in the study hall, at board of trustees gatherings, with local gatherings, inside their families and for the most part as a method for living with and managing others. Agreeable learning is characterized by a lot of procedures which assist individuals with associating together so as to achieve a particular objective or build up a final result which is generally content explicit. It is more mandate than a collaboratve arrangement of administration and firmly constrained by the instructor. While there are numerous systems for bunch examination and contemplation the crucial methodology is educator focused though community learning is more understudy focused. Spencer Kagan in an article in Educational Leadership (Dec/Jan 1989/1990) gives a magnificent meaning of agreeable learning by seeing general structures which can be applied to any circumstance. His definition gives an unbrella to the work helpful learning pros including he Johnsons, Slavin, Cooper, Graves and Graves, Millis, and so forth. It follows beneath: â€Å"The auxiliary way to deal with agreeable learning depends on the creation, examination and deliberate use of structures, or substance free methods for sorting out social collaboration in the study hall. Structures as a rule include a progression of steps, with prohibited conduct at each progression. A significant foundation of the methodology is the qualification among â€Å"structures† and â€Å"activities†. â€Å"To represent, educators can structure numerous astounding helpful exercises, for example, making a group painting or a blanket. Such exercises quite often have a particular substance bound goal and therefore can't be utilized to convey a scope of scholastic substance. Structures might be utilized more than once with practically any topic, at a wide scope of evaluation levels and at different focuses in an exercise plan. † John Myers (Cooperative Learning vol 11 #4 July 1991) brings up that the word reference meanings of â€Å"collaboration†, got from its Latin root, center around the way toward cooperating; the root word for â€Å"cooperation† stresses the result of such work. Co-usable taking in has to a great extent American roots from the philosophical compositions of John Dewey focusing on the social idea of learning and the work on bunch elements by Kurt Lewin. Collective learning has British roots, in view of crafted by English instructors investigating approaches to assist understudies with reacting to writing by playing an increasingly dynamic job in their own learning. The agreeable learning custom will in general utilize quantitative strategies which take a gander at accomplishment: I. e. , the result of learning. The synergistic convention adopts an increasingly subjective strategy, investigating understudy talk in light of a bit of writing or an essential source ever. Myers brings up certain contrasts between the two ideas: â€Å"Supporters of co-employable learning will in general be more educator focused, for instance while framing heterogeneous gatherings, organizing positive between reliance, and showing co-usable abilities. Shared learning advocates doubt structure and permit understudies more state if framing friendhip and premium gatherings. Understudy talk is worried as a methods for working things out. Disclosure and contextural approaches are utilized to show relational abilities. † â€Å"Such contrasts can prompt disagreements†¦. I fight the question isn't about research, however increasingly about the profound quality of what ought to occur in the schools. Convictions as to whast ought to occur in the schools can be seen as a continuum of directions toward educational plan from â€Å"transmission† to â€Å"transaction† to â€Å"transmission†. Toward one side is the transmission position. As the name recommends, the point of this direction is to transmit information to understudies as realities, abilities and qualities. The change position at the opposite finish of the continuum stresses individual and social change in which the individual is said to be interrelated with the earth instead of having power over it. The point of this direction is self-realization, individual or authoritative change. † Rocky Rockwood (National Teaching and Learning Forum vol 4 #6, 1995 section 1) depicts the distinctions by recognizing the equals the two of them have in that the two of them use gatherings, both relegate explicit assignments, and both have the gatherings offer and think about their strategies and ends in whole class meetings. The significant distinction lies in the way that helpful arrangements solely with conventional (standard) information while community integrates with the social constructivist development, stating that both information and authority of information have changed drastically in the only remaining century. â€Å"The result has been a change from â€Å"foundational (intellectual) comprehension of knowledge†, to a nonfoundational ground where â€Å"we comprehend information to be a social build and learning a social process† (Brufee, Collaborative learning: Higher Education, Interdependence, and the Authority of Knowledge, 1993). Rockwood states: â€Å"In the perfect cooperative condition, the expert for testing and deciding the fittingness of the gathering item rests with, first, the little gathering, second, the entire gathering (the entire class) lastly (however constantly comprehended to be liable to challenge and update) the imperative information network (I. e. the order: geology, history, science and so on ) The idea of non-essential information challenges the item gained, yet in addition the procedure utilized in the obtaining of central information. â€Å"Most critically, in helpful, the position stays with the teacher, who holds responsibility for task, which includes either a shut or a closable (in other words fundamental) issue ( the educator knows or can foresee the appropriate response). In communitarian, the instructorâ€once the undertaking is set†moves all power to the gathering. In the perfect, the group’s task is constantly open finished. † â€Å"Seen from this viewpo int, helpful doesn't engage understudies. It utilizes them to serve the instructor’s finishes and creates a â€Å"right† or adequate answer. Collective does really engage and overcomes all the dangers of strengthening (for instance, having the gathering or class consent to an embarrassingly shortsighted or unconvincing position or produce an answer in struggle with the instructor’s). † â€Å"Every individual, Brufee holds, has a place with a few â€Å"interpretative or information communities† that share vocabularies, perspectives, chronicles, qualities, shows and interests. The activity of the educator id to assist understudies with figuring out how to arrange the limits between the networks they as of now have a place with and the network spoke to by the teacher’s scholastic order, which the understudies need to join. Each information network has a center of fundamental information that its individuals consider as given (yet not really total). To work autonomously inside an information network, the youngster researcher must ace enough material to get familiar with the network. † Rockwood closes: as far as I can tell, helpful speaks to the best way to move toward authority of basic information. When understudies become sensibly acquainted, they are prepared for shared, prepared to talk about and assess,†¦. † Myers recommends utilization of the â€Å"transaction† direction as a trade off between taking hard positions upholding either strategy. â€Å"This direction sees instruction as an exchange between the understudy and the educational program. Understudies are seen as issue solvers. Critical thinking and request approaches focusing psychological abilities and the thoughts of Vygotsky, Piaget, Kohlberg and Bruner are connected to exchange. This viewpoint sees instructing as a â€Å"conversation† in which educators and understudies learn together through a procedure of exchange with the educational plan to build up a mutual perspective on the world. † It is obvious to me that in attempted the exercize of characterizing contrasts between the two thoughts we risk polarizing the instructive network into a we versus them attitude. There are such a significant number of advantages which acrue from the two thoughts that it would be a disgrace to lose any bit of leeway picked up from the understudy instructor collaborations made by the two techniques. We should be mindful so as to keep away from a one-size-fits-all mindset with regards to instruction ideal models. As a last idea, I think it profits instructors to teach themselves about the bunch of

Performance Appraisals and Motivation Theories - Free Essay Example

This chapter served as the groundwork for the development of this study. An overview of the extensive historical research on related topics is provided. The literature review is divided into two categories where the first dwells on literatures pertaining on the subject of Performance Appraisals and the second category focuses on motivation theories and their relevance in the Performance Appraisal System. 2.2 Performance Appraisal System 2.2.1 Meaning of Performance: Different authors have differing ideas about what performance actually is. Lebas (1995) defines performance as undertaking a particular action to successfully complete set goals, taking into consideration the given time frame and constraints of the performer and the situation. On the other hand, performance can be demarcated by comparing actual results attained to results that were expected (Dess and Robinson, 1984). According to Brumbrach (1988, cited in Armstrong, 2000): Performance means both behaviours and results. Behaviours emanate from the performer and transform performance from abstraction to action. Not just the instruments for results, behaviours are also outcomes in their own right the product of mental and physical effort applied to tasks and can be judged apart from results.  [1] The above definition considers performance to be involving both the actions taken during the process in attempting to achieve goals and outputs obtained as a result of the effort put. 2.2.2 Performance Management System (PMS) Following the definition of performance given by Brumbrach, Armstrong (2000) highlights the importance and need for superiors to manage employees performance. To determine if performance has been succeeded, techniques have to be developed to appraise the accomplishments. Performance Management (PM) is one of the ways to manage workers performance today in many organisations. Noe et al (2006) define performance management as a practice used by managers to make sure that employees actions and outputs delivered are consistent with the organisations goals. The concept of PM was first coined by Beer and Ruh in 1976. However, it is barely in the mid 1980s that it had been known as a distinctive approach. PM since then has contributed a lot in the advancement of Human Resource Management. The concept is widely being used in organisations with a view to obtain better results and improved performances from the workforce. Goals and standards are being planned well beforehand in orde r to get satisfied outcomes. 2.2.3 Performance Appraisal System (PAS) Performance Appraisal System is a component of PM. Also known as performance review, it formally documents the achievements of an individual with regards to set targets. Managing employees performance can be said to be as important as any other work that all managers execute during the year. Grote (2002) describes performance appraisal as a formal management tool that helps evaluate the performance quality of an employee. Schneier and Beatty as cited in Patterson (1987) define it as a process which apart from evaluating also identifies and develops human performance. According to Karol (1996) performance appraisal includes a communication occasion planned between a manager and an employee for the main purpose of assessing that employees previous performance and establishing ways for further improvement. 2.2.4 History of PAS The history of performance appraisal is fairly concise. Appraisal really began with the Second World War where it was used to assess outcomes. Performance appraisal was seen in the industry in early 1800. Randell (1994) identified its use in Robert Owens use of silent monitors in the cotton mills of Scotland. The Silent monitors were in terms of blocks of wood with different colours painted on each visible side and it was hung above each employees work station. At the end of the day, the block was turned so that a particular colour, representing a grade of the employees performance, could be seen by everyone. (Weise and Buckley, 1998) Subjective evidence indicates that this practice had a facilitating influence on subsequent behavior. Spriegel(1962) and Weise and Buckley(1998) affirm that by the early 1950s, 61 per cent of organisations regularly used performance appraisals, compared with only 15 per cent immediately after World War II. DeVries et al. (1981) pointed out th e primary tool to be the trait-rating system, which focused on past actions, using a standard, numerical scoring system to appraise people on the basis of a previously established set of dimensions. The main tool, used under here was trait rating system. The concept of Management by Objective (MBO) was first proposed by Peter Drucker in 1954. Mcgreror then used it in the appraisal process in the year 1957. He suggested that, employees should be appraised on the basis of short-term goals, rather than traits, which are jointly set by the employee and the manager. Weise and Buckley (1998) affirm that this method was very advantageous as it lead to a transformation of a managers role from being a judge to a helper. It also showed that employees productivity ultimately leads to performance. However, when employees performance was measured on the basis of units, then MBO was ineffective. This lead to new development in the appraisal process and the employees were evaluated on the ba sis of behaviour based rating. Smith and Kendall (1963) designed the first tool to focus on behaviors and it was the Behaviorally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS). 2.1.5 Modern Appraisal Todays performance appraisal process has evolved into a more planned and formal process. It is used as a means which helps identify and compare employees performances. The appraisals data are frequently being used to review several Human Resources decision. It can determine any need for career developments and trainings. For issues such as raise in salaries, rewards and promotions, employers are more and more making use of the appraisals results. Appraisals have now developed into a regular and intervallic system in organizations, normally carried out at least once a year. When talking about the modern approach to appraisal, the term feedback cannot be ignored. The one-to-one discussion between supervisors and subordinates gives rise to feedback and is referred to as the feedback process. This process can improve communication all through the organization but also it can reinforce employees relationships with their superiors. This is so as the workers have the feeling that they do matter to the organization and that their needs are being taken into consideration. The performance appraisal system has most likely become a future-oriented approach as it aims to improve future performances by considering present problems. 2.1.6 Purposes of PAS The most known purpose of performance appraisal is to improve performance of individuals. Cummings and Shwab (1974) held that performance appraisal has basically two important purposes, from an organizational point of view and these are: 1. The maintenance of organizational control 2. The measurement of the efficiency with which the organizations human resources are being utilized. Still, there are also a variety of other declared purposes for appraisal as per Bratton and Gold (2003) and Bowles and Coates (1993) and some are; improving motivation and morale of the employees, clarifying the expectations and reducing the uncertainty about performance, determining rewards, identifying training and development needs, improving communication, selecting people for promotion, discipline, planning corrective actions and setting targets. Furthermore, Bowles and Coates (1993) conducted a postal survey of 250 West Midland companies in June 1992, where organizations were asked ques tions pertaining to the use of Performance management in the organization. These questions included the apparent purpose of PA in the management of work, its strengths and weaknesses. Through their survey they found out that PA was beneficial in the following ways: PA was favorable in developing the communication between employer and employee It was useful in defining performance expectations It helped identified training needs. Performance appraisal can thus be used as an effective tool to improve employees job performance by identifying strengths and weaknesses, meeting of targeted goals and providing training if needed. 2.1.7 Techniques of PAS There are several commonly used techniques of performance appraisal as reviewed by Oberg (1972). They are as follows: Essay Appraisal, Paired Comparison, Graphic Review Scale, Weighted Checklist, Person to Person Rating, Forced Ranking, Critical Incidents. The above techniques were the traditional ones but the methods most widely used today are: Management by Objectives Employees are requested to put up their own performance objectives. They are then judged through these objectives by verifying whether they were satisfied or not. However, in many cases organizations themselves set their standards and goals even after consulting employees. 360 Degree Feedback 360 Degree Feedback is a process in which employees receive private and anonymous feedback from the people who work around them. Kettley (1997) says that when an individual receives feedback from different sources of the organization, including peers, subordinate staff, customers and themselves, the proce ss is called 360 degree feedback or appraisal. The employee is then assessed using those received feedback. 2.1.8 Feedback Feedback about the effectiveness of an individuals behavior has long been recognized as essential for learning and for motivation in performance-oriented organizations. Ilgen et al. (1979) stated that feedback is considered as an important tool in performance appraisal process. Feedback can be a useful tool for development, especially if it is specific and behaviorally oriented, as well as both problem-oriented and solution-oriented according to Murphy and Cleveland (1995). One of the basic purposes of formal appraisal process is the provision of clear and performance based feedback to employees. Carroll and Scheiner( 1982) affirmed that some organisations use feedback as a development tool, while in some organizations it is used for merit evaluation and compensation adjustment. McEvoy and Buller(1987), Wohlers and Gallagher( 1990) contributed that feedback is very essential for the employees because it forms a baseline for the employees which help them to get a review of their pas t performance and chance to improve their skills for the future. Ashford (1986) says that when feedback is considered as a valuable resource, then only the individuals feel motivated to seek it, which helps in reducing uncertainty and provides information relevant to self-evaluations. There is also evidence that performance feedback (if given appropriately) can lead to substantial improvements in future performance (Guzzo et al., 1985; Kopelman, 1986; Landy et al., 1982) Fedor et al. (1989); Ilgen et al. (1979) identified that it is commonly accepted that negative feedback is perceived as less accurate and thus less accepted by recipients than positive feedback. Furthermore, Fedor et al. (1989) found that negative performance appraisal feedback was less accepted and perceived as less accurate than positive performance appraisal feedback. 2.1.9 Views Organisations Employees have on P.A.S Evans (1986) asserts that many employees believe that their promotion or salary increments depend mostly on their performance. Employees therefore are in a dilemma and consider this situation as survival of the fittest. They know for a fact that, their performance will only be taken into consideration at the end of the day. So, in order to grow in the company they need to be proactive towards their work. The feedback the employee receives from his superior, may simply describe the level of performance achieved. Hence, it becomes important for the managers to conduct the appraisal technique correctly. Employees can only accept criticism if it is useful and important to them. Managers should therefore know how to give information regarding progress made in performance and how to present criticism as well. Meyer et.al (1965) carried out a study in General Electric Company where certain points relating to performance feedback was highlighted. In this study, 92 employees were appr aised by their managers on two occasions over two weeks. The study was carried out using questionnaires, interviews and observation. The first appraisal highlighted performance and salary while the second one underlined performance and improvement. It was observed that lots of criticisms were pointed out by the managers, which lead to defensive behaviour of the employees. The conclusion of the study was that criticism leads a negative impact on the motivation and performance of the employees. Also feedback sessions designed to improve performance should not at the same time consider salary and promotion issues. Ilgen et. al (1979) add that employees who believe that the appraisal system is under any kind of bias, are most likely to be dissatisfied by their work and can also leave their jobs. On the other hand Murphy and Cleveland highlighted one possible reason for the widespread dissatisfaction with performance appraisal in organization as the systems used by these help neith er them nor their employees in meeting the desired goals. Landy et al. (1978) and Tang and Sarsfield-Baldwin (1996) found evidence that the assignment of raters influences perceptions of fairness and accuracy in performance appraisals and hence about the whole process itself. Nevertheless, according to Jacobs, Kafry Zedeck (1980) employees perceive PA to give them a proper understanding of their duties and responsibilities towards the organization. Likewise, organization sees it as a tool to assess employees on a common ground and one which helps in salary and promotions decisions, training and development programs. In many circumstances appraisal plans are interpreted by managers as a system that helps an organization to change regular priorities and usual ways of working and in so doing to alter its strategic direction. Hence, in circumstances where change cannot be attained by managerial proclamation, appraisal takes on the character of an engine of change. When manager s look at appraisal from this angle they hope that it will bring about a change in strategic direction and organizational behaviour. Researchers have suggested that reaction to performance appraisal is critical to the acceptance and use of a performance appraisal system (Bernardin Beatty, 1984; Cardy Dobbins, 1994; Murphy Cleveland, 1995). Reactions may even contribute to the validity of a system (Ostroff, 1993). Cardy and Dobbins (1994) suggest that with dissatisfaction and feelings of unfairness in process and inequity in evaluations, any performance appraisal system will be doomed to failure (p. 54). Murphy and Cleveland (1995) stated that reaction criteria are almost always relevant, and an unfavorable reaction may doom the carefully constructed appraisal system. 2.1.10 Benefits of PAS Possibly the most important benefit of appraisal is that, in the rush and pressure of todays working life, it allows the supervisor and subordinate to have time out for a one-on-one discussion of indispensable work problems that might not otherwise be addressed. Likewise, the existence itself of an appraisal system indicates to employees that the organization is genuinely concerned with their individual performances and advancement. This only can have a positive impact on the employees sense of worth, commitment and belonging. Appraisal offers the rare chance to focus on employment activities and objectives, to spot and correct existing problems and to enhance favorable future performance. Thus the performance of the whole organization is improved. Performance appraisal usually provides employees with acknowledgment for their work efforts, if any and as a result it brings them satisfaction. Actually, there are facts supporting that human beings will even prefer negative re cognition in rather than no recognition at all. During performance appraisals, feedbacks are obtained. These provide vital information on whether training and development needs should be considered. The presence or lack of working skills, for example, can become very obvious. The supervisor and subordinate can thus agree upon any demand for training. As far as the organization is concerned, the overall appraisal results can provide a regular and efficient training needs audit for the organization as a whole. The information obtained from appraisals can also give indication on an organizations recruitment and selection practices. This can be done by screening the performance of recently hired workers. The general quality of the workforce can also be monitored by assessing any improvement or decline performances. Changes if needed in the recruitment strategies can then be considered. 2.1.11 Criticisms related to P.A.S There are several problems in the actual performance appraisal primarily due to rater bias. Some supervisors are too lenient and thus have a tendency to rate all employees positively rather than really measuring their performance. Another problem is the central tendency where supervisors position the majority of the employees in the center of the performance scale, even though they deserve a better or worse grade. The halo effect is another error usually made during appraisals. This arises when a supervisors general feeling about an employee influences the overall judgment. Performance appraisal systems are at times criticized for weaknesses in the system design itself. Sometimes they assess the wrong behaviours or consequences, or focus on employees personality instead of on their work performances. Very often standards for appraising employees are not related to the work itself. As a consequence employees may not likely be interested in such a system where performance stand ards are unsuccessful in highlighting important aspects of the jobs. Some organizations founds that PAS is a constant cause of tension, since evaluative and developmental concerns come often into disagreement. It is said that the appraisal can serve only one of them at a time. Also they find it dehumanize and demoralize to pass on judgments which then become source of apprehension and stress to employees. Many researchers such as Derven (1990) expressed doubts about the effectiveness and dependability of the appraisal process. Some found the process to be imperfect in nature. Moreover, Gabris Mitchell (1989) found a disturbing bias in the appraisal process called the Matthew Effect. It is said to take place in cases where employees keep on receiving the same evaluation each year. This denotes that there is the belief that if an employee has work well, he or she will continue on that pace. The Matthew Effect advocates that even if employees struggle to do well, their past a ppraisal reports will discriminate their future progress. Accuracy is important in appraisals. However for raters to appraise employees accurately, they should give unbiased results. Unfortunately accurate ratings are quite impossible as researchers affirm that personal liking, look, former impressions, gender and race will certainly manipulate appraisals, that is, there will always be some kind of biasness. 2.1.12 Conclusion about PAS There are various schools of beliefs as to the validity and reliability of performance appraisals. While Derven (1990) doubts about its dependability, Lawrie (1990) finds it to be the most important aspect of organizations. A recent survey concluded that more than fifty per cent of the workforce wishes that their supervisors list the performance objectives much more specifically and clearly. The same survey revealed that 42 per cent of the employees were rather disappointed their organisations performance appraisal system. Many supervisors make the wrong use of appraisal. They use it as a punitive tool rather than helping their subordinates to improve their performance and overcome work problems. According to Shelley Riebel, as in the Detroit News (April 11, 1998) often managers are unsuccessful to explain what they really expect from their employees and fail to well describe the criteria used for assessing their performance. The data obtained during the appraisal proce ss should be wisely used and considered. Still, for performance appraisal to be successful, it is important to carry it out on a regular and consistent basis. This will allow supervisors to follow and review employees work. Raters often make the mistake of emphasizing too much on mistakes committed by the employees. Rather, if ever some problem is spotted by the supervisor, the issue should be discussed with the employee concerned and both should try work on a solution. 2.2 Motivation Performance Appraisal System 2.2.1 Introduction to Motivation Motivation can be defined as the driving force that moves us to pursue a certain goal, or trigger a particular action. It can be considered as the desire within a person causing him or her to act. People generally act for a motive and that is to achieve a specific objective. Two main types of motivation have been noted, namely intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation comes from the inner self while extrinsic motivation arises when external factors require one to perform something. According to Passer and Smith (2004) the concept motivation refers to a course of action that influences the determination, direction and dynamism of goal-directed behaviour. Similarly, Kreitner and Kinicki (2007) assert that motivation represents psychological practices that stimulate voluntary actions. In the work context, as confirmed by Coetsee (2003), motivation entails the readiness of individuals and groups to put much effort so as to achieve organizational goals. From the above, it can be construed that there exists no single and general definition for motivation. Yet, Boje and Rosile (2004) regard motivation as an authoritarian ideology, a way to manipulate performance and where visions of self-actualisation need gratification. This view might be too negative to consider, but the rise in capitalism has been driven by high concentration motivation programmes which sometimes turn employees into production machines. 2.2.2 Motivation and P.A.S in Organisation Today Motivation can be the key to a successful organization. It is often claimed that the best businesses have the best motivated workers. Well motivated employees are said to be more productive and perform quality work. It remains however one of the most challenged tasks for managers to motivate their staffs as everyone is unique. A supervisor should strive to tie in the companys goals together with the employees individual goals through performance management. Moreover, the whole performance appraisal process and its result can affect an employees motivation. As highlighted by Cummings and Shwabs (1974), employees performance is the outcome of the employees motivation to perform. In an organisational context, the performance is appraised by assessing the employees aptitudes and potentials to achieve the set goals. 2.2.3 Theories of Motivation related to P.A.S 2.2.3.1 Edwin Lockes Goal Setting Theory A main element for efficiently coaching employees is by using goal setting. Edwin Locke (1968) introduced the Goal Setting Theory whereby employees get motivated to work for the organisation when they are given specific and pronounced goals to achieve. This theory emphasizes that hard goals produce a higher level of performance than easy goals. Secondly, particular hard goals produce higher level of output and lastly, behavioural intentions lead to choice behaviour. Many, who study the relationship between performance and motivation in organizations, will agree that goal-setting and explanation creates confidence in the workers. By clearly explaining the meaning of the goals, employees will have a clear view on what the organization wants to achieve. Coetsee (2003) affirms that the most performing workers are goal-directed. Set goals allow employees to accomplish organisational vision, aims and strategic objectives. The assumption made here is that when people recognise and unde rstand what is expected from them and how they are to be met, they will be motivated to achieve them within the time-limit. With regard to coaching, goal-setting theory has been used more than any other as a framework to motivate employees to improve their performance. As cited by Cary L. Cooper, Edwin A. Locke (2000), the early work of Maier (1958) and Meyer et al. (1965) emphasized goal setting in the appraisal process. In a study, Latham et al. (1978) found that consistent with the theorys predictions, employee participation in setting the goals resulted in higher performance than assigning them, not because of greater goal commitment, but rather due to high goals being set. According to Dossett et al. (1979), a similar result was observed with Weyerhaeusers word processing employees. Goals and objectives set by the employers and employees should be discussed regularly. Erez (1977) asserted that for difficult goals to result in high performance, sufficient feedback is ve ry important. 2.2.3.2 Behaviour Maintenance Model (BMM) Cummings and Swabs presented the Behaviour Maintenance Model (BMM) to illustrate how people are motivated to perform efficiently in an organisation. This model emphasises on the significance of outcomes in the motivational process. Fig.1: Behavior Maintenance Model This framework shows that goal aspirations results in goal attainment and motivation. When goal attainment is achieved by the employee, it leads to job satisfaction which in turn leads the employee to become motivated. 2.2.3.3 Victor Vrooms Expectancy theory Expectancy theory is an idea that was introduced by Victor Vroom. The theory as explained by Kreitner Kinicki (2007) is based on the assumption that people are motivated to act in ways that will be followed by valued and desired outcomes. The theory says that an employee might be motivated when there is a belief that a better performance will result in a good performance appraisal which will help in the realization of personal goals. The theory focuses on motivation as the combination of valence, instrumentality and expectancy. Valence is the value of the alleged result. Instrumentality is the point of view of an individual whether he or she will really obtain what they want. It shows that successful act will eventually lead to the desired result. Expectancy refers to the different level of expectations as well as confidence regarding ones capability. Employees believe that these create a motivational force and this force can be represented by the formula: Motivation = Valence x E xpectancy The theory focuses on three things: ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¢ Efforts and performance relationship ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¢ Performance and reward relationship ÃÆ' ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¢ Rewards and personal goal relationship 2.2.4 Conclusion: Performance Appraisal as Motivator? From the above reviews, it can be seen that no such research has been done to show if performance appraisal really acts as a motivator to employees. Bratton and Gold (2003) and Bowles and Coates (1993) claimed motivation to be one of the purposes of appraisals. It remains unconditional to know whether performance appraisal has a role to play in employees motivation. The research will therefore try to answer the following research questions: Does the Performance Appraisal System affect employees motivation? Does the system affect more a specific category of employees? How do employees perceive the PAS at the MRA? How do employees perceive feedback? Does the level of importance given to the system directly affect the employees motivation? Does the trust put on the appraiser influences the employees motivation?

Narrative Structure In Ernest J. Gainess A Lesson Before...

Narrative Structure: In his novel, A Lesson Before Dying, Ernest J. Gaines leaves the readers with a clear message. His writing style and organization throughout the novel make the story easy to understand. Gaines utilizes point of view, style and setting in order to construct a genuine story which reflected many nonfiction events. Gaines uses Grant Wiggins to narrate the novel. Through the first person point of view, the reader gets to see everything through Grant’s eyes. The point of view reveals Grant’s fickle character and allows for an alteration from the beginning when he is mostly cynical to the end when he attains a sort of confidence. From the first page of the novel, Grant’s pessimistic view is shown, â€Å"No, I did not go†¦show more content†¦The novel is set in the fictional town of Bayonne, Louisiana in the pre-Civil Rights (1940s) south. The genuine feeling of this novel derives from Gaines’ ability to recreate the era and time per iod. Gaines is able to transport the reader back to pre-Civil Rights life of an African American on a plantation in the south. Grant Wiggins, protagonist narrator shares his experiences as a boy, living on the plantation and slaving over Pichot family alongside his aunt and Miss Emma (42). Grant is always upset when going to the Pichot’s plantation because he recognizes the injustice of the employment opportunities in the small black community. The town represents the stereotypical racist southern community and serves to create the conflicts that arise in the story. The setting is one of the most important factors to the story because if it weren’t in the small divided town of Bayonne, there would not be an unjust trial, and Jefferson probably wouldn’t have been involved at all with the murder case because he would not be picking sugar cane if this story was set in California in the 1980s. The setting is everything. It makes the story a story about racism and di gnity. The jail is where Grants greatest struggles are resolved. At first he doesn’t want to be there. His visits cause him to be humiliated because he had to be patted down, â€Å"To search my body as if I’m some kind of common criminal†(79). Grant struggles to continue to

Labor Unions in the Late 1800s Essay - 820 Words

Labor Unions in the Late 1800s Labor unions in the late 1800s set out to improve the lives of frequently abused workers. Volatile issues like the eight-hour workday, ridiculously low pay and unfair company town practices were often the fuses that lit explosive conflicts between unions and monopolistic industrialists. Some of the most violent and important conflicts of the time were the Haymarket Affair and the Pullman strike. Each set out to with similar goals and both ended with horrifying consequences. The movement for the eight-hour workday was one of the most violent struggles for laborers. Their struggle is defined by protests that were broken up by the police and the Pinkertons. The Pinkertons were a mercenary police group†¦show more content†¦Many homes, meeting halls, and offices where outspoken supporters of the eight-hour movement lived and worked were raided without warrant. Oscar Neebe, Adolph Fisher, August Spies, Louis Lingg, Michael Schwab, Samuel Fielden, Carl Engel, and Albert Parsons we re charged with the trumped up charge of accessory to murder for the riot. They were all brought to trial, even though many of the men were not even at Haymarket Square at the time of the melee. With a jury of twelve men found all of the defendants guilty. After an appeal to the Supreme Court, Spies, Parsons, Fischer and Engel were sentenced to hang. Neebe, Fielden and Schwab were given life sentences. Louis Lingg most likely would have served a life sentence as well, however, he committed suicide. 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Financial Reporting International Financial Reporting Standards

Question: Discuss about the Financial Reporting for International Financial Reporting Standards. Answer: Introduction To The Companies Wesfarmers Wesfarmers Limited is an Australia-based conglomerate, founded in 1914, with its headquarters at Perth. The company predominantly specialises in New Zealand and Australian retail, together with fertilisers, industrial and safety products, coal mining and chemicals. It has become the biggest Australian company in terms of revenue with AU$62.7 billion in the year 2015, surpassing mining giant BHP Billion and retail competitor Woolworths Limited. Wesfarmers is also the biggest private employer in the country, with a workforce of 205,000 people (IBIS Wrold, 2015). Initially established as a co-operative to offer merchandise and services to Western Australian farmers, the company was listed on the Australian Stock Exchange in 1984 and henceforth grew into a big retail conglomerate. On becoming a public organisation, it diversified its interests through a series of mergers and acquisitions. Wesfarmers purchased Cole, an Australian supermarket, convenience, fuel and liquor retailer in 2007 (Who we are, 2015). Another division of the Group is the Home Improvement and Office Supplies which is made up of the Bunning Warehouse, a retailer of outdoor living and home improvement products, serving commercial and home consumers in New Zealand and Australia; and Officeworks, a supplier and retailer of office merchandise for home, education and business in Australia. Wesfarmers department store business is restructured into a single division named Department Stores wherein Kmart and Target are two major department store retailers. The company is also into industrial businesses i.e. Chemicals, Energy and Fertilizers; Industrial and Safety; and Resources (Wesfarmers Sustainability Report, 2012). The Group has 8 subsidiaries and 79 executives. The organisational structure is divisional with every division having its own structure. Decision making is reserved for the senior management in every division. Wesfarmers has secured many national and international awards and accolades for outstanding works in different streams. A 12% increase in export sales during 2008/09 in the site of the worst and biggest fall in global demand in 40 years, helped Wesfarmers Curragh secure the countrys most esteemed business exporting honour for the Minerals and Energy category (Wesfarmers Resources, 2012). Woolworths Limited Woolworths Limited is an Australian firm with widespread retail interest all across New Zealand and Australia. It is the second biggest company in terms of revenue in Australia after Wesfarmers and the second biggest in New Zealand. Moreover, it is the biggest takeaway liquor retailer in the nation. The main operations of Woolworths Limited, which was founded in 1924, include liquor retailing (as Dan Murphys and BWS in Australia), supermarkets (under the brand name Countdown in New Zealand, and Woolworths in Australia), discount department chains as Big W in Australia, and pubs and hotels under the ALH Group umbrella (IBIS World, 2015). The Group enjoys market leading positions in all the major markets. It is 30% larger in Australian Food and Liquor than its closest rival. Masters stands second in the immensely appealing Home Improvement market. Woolworths is also the biggest domestic internet based retailer in Australia (McArthur, 2013). Again a divisional hierarchical structure is followed in the organisation, with the BOD acting on behalf of its shareholders in controlling the functions and preserving good corporate governance. The Management Board is also charged with the responsibility of managing decisions and operations. As a brand, Woolworths has come to signify outstanding quality and has attained an iconic status in a country where people fondly refer to it as Woolies. The Group has also been bestowed with several awards for its sustainable development initiatives. It was awarded the Disability Employment Award at the Australian Resources Institutes Diversity Awards in 2013 for its disability recruitment drive. Together with its partner WorkFocus, the company was recognised for developing a booklet How to Guide for Recruiting People with Disability. This was designed to help store managers across the organisation to better comprehend the processes and benefits of hiring disabled people (Woolworths Limited, 2013). Sources of Finance Short Term Finance Wesfarmers The business uses short-term business finance to grab quick opportunities which require the business transaction to be finished in short time. The total short-term finance as per companys balance sheet for the year ended June 2015 amount to AU$1,913. These include bank overdrafts (AU$6), Corporate bonds (AU$1,584), and other bank loans (AU$323) (Wesfarmers, 2015). Bank overdrafts allow the company to write checks for an amount greater than what they have in their account during a given period of time. This is especially beneficial when the cash flow moves in and out several times in a month. Moreover, it ensures timely payments thereby avoiding penalties. Corporate bonds which make up the highest proportion of Wesfarmers short-term borrowings, prove to b a highly flexible means of raising debt capital. Wesfarmers has both unsecured current and unsecured non-current corporate bonds, however, the figure mentioned above is in respect of unsecured current corporate bonds (Ehr hardt and Brigham, 2008). These bonds stabilise the companys financed by having significant debts at a fixed interest. This provides protection against the dynamic economic changes and variable rates of interest. Short term Bank Loans enables the retailer to repay the loan amount in a shorter duration and with less interest (Rigby, 2011). Woolworths Woolworths also makes use of short-term sources to finance its short-term business needs. The total short-term finance of the company for the year ended June 2015 was AU$1,645. This included short-term money market loans (AU$10), bank loans (AU$23.8), short-term securities (AU$1,609.9), and finance leases (AU$1.7). All these are unsecured sources of funds. With help of a lease, the company does not need to buy a product which may not be required in the long term, and this source also reduces the business costs (Woolworths Limited, 2015). Long Term Finance Long Term Debt Wesfarmers The company uses long-term debts to finance its fixed asset needs, to fund its permanent component of working capital, to expand its divisions and many other purposes. Long-term debt comprises of financial obligations and loans lasting for more than one year. Wesfarmers total long-term borrowings for the year ended June 2015 were AU$4,615 (Wesfarmers, 2015). This comprised of non-current unsecured corporate bonds of the same value. This implies that the company did not take any long-term bank loans and funded its long-term needs completely through corporate bonds. WoolworthsWoolworths also depends on long-term debts for buying fixed assets, increasing facilities and business expansion purposes. The companys total long-term borrowings for the year ended June 2015 amount to AU$3,079. Woolworths, however, has a diversified portfolio of long-term borrowings, including long-term securities (AU$2,384.6), Finance leases (AU$2.9), and Woolworths Notes II (AU$696.5) (Woolworths Limited, 2015). Equity This is the ownership capital of a company. Any public limited firm can raise funds from promoters or public as equity share capital via the issuance of ordinary equity shares. The owners of Ordinary shares get their return on capital and dividend once the preference shareholders are paid (Kumar and Francisco, 2005). Wesfarmers The shareholders equity in the company for the year ending June 2015 was AU$21,844. These include own shares acquired (Wesfarmers. 2015). Woolworths The owners own equity in Woolworths for the year ending June 2015 was AU$5,064.9. These include fully paid ordinary shares (AU$4,850.1), shares issued because of share options and rights exercised under employee long-term incentive plans (AU$.3), and shares issued because of dividend reinvestment plan (AU$6.5) (Woolworths Limited, 2015). Capital Structure and Financial Ratio Analysis Capital Structure Wesfarmers The main goal of Wesfarmers capital structure is to give a suitable return to its shareholders. Wesfarmers capital is a combination of net debt, shareholders equity and reserves. As an important enabler of delivering suitable returns to shareholders, the company aims to hold an effective capital structure which is aligned with a powerful credit rating and strong investment grade. Robust free cash flow generation, supported by regimented portfolio management has allowed the organisation to undertake capital management (Wesfarmers. 2015). Wesfarmers debt levels rose during the year but they are still low. The component of equity in the capital structure is quite higher as compared to debt. Woolworths Woolworths manages its capital structure with an aim to enhance long-term shareholder value by optimising its weighted average cost of capital whilst withholding flexibility to chase growth and take capital management initiatives. The company has a long-term debt financing policy that entails an inclination toward long-term debt from the capital markets for matching long-term assets; minimizing the risks of refinancing by staggering debt maturities and making use of diverse sources of debt; and, completely hedging foreign currency exposure and interest rate to form certainty around funding costs (Woolworths Limited, 2015). Despite this policy, the company is currently employing very low levels of debt in comparison to equity. Financial Ratios Ratios Wesfarmers Woolworths Current Ratio (Current Assets/Current Liabilities) 9,093/9,726 = .93 7,661/9,169 = .84 Debt-Equity Ratio (Long term debts/Total Equity 4,615/24,781 = .19 3,076/10,834 = .28 Interpretation: The current ratios of both the companies are below the industry standard. The above results of the current ratio show that both the organisations ought to adjust and enhance the value of their current assets because a number of current liabilities cannot be efficiently covered by their current assets. The ratio reveals how best the companies can bail out their short-term debts. The operational efficiencies of both the organisations are not satisfactory (Gibson, 2012). The Debt-Equity ratios of both the companies are also very below the ideal ratio of 2:1. This implies that the company is not adequately leveraged and relying on owners capital. Although the capital structure policies of both the companies are debt favouring, still neither is following it (Helfert, 2013). Companies Financing Structure and Financial Reporting Framework Ever since the worldwide recession of 2009, the Australian economy has witnessed various uncertainties and fluctuations. This financial crisis also ended up hurting the retail sector as domestic demand and customer confidence fell drastically, while unemployment increased from 4.8% in 2008 to 6.2% in 2009. The recent Eurozone crisis and the unhealthy dependence on the resource sector are another challenges in front of both Wesfarmers and Woolworths. Although there is no direct trade flows between Australia and Europe, but the damages are extended through China which is a major exporter of Australia (Abdelsamad, 2010). In light of these uncertain economic conditions, it is presumed that the use of higher equity financing is a protection against situations of loss. Woolworths recorded its biggest loss of AU$1.235 billion in the first quarter of FY16. In such situation, it is wise to use lesser debt and greater equity. However, Wesfarmers recorded high profit in the previous year and se ems to be doing great business. Consequently, the company can opt for debt financing because there would not be a problem of non-payment of dividends (Jenster and Hussey, 2011). Similarities and Differences between Wesfarmers and Woolworths The main similarities between the sources of finance and financial reporting framework of Wesfarmers and Woolworths are that both use greater equity in their capital structure and both follow the Australian Accounting Standards Board (AASB) framework for financial reporting. The main reasons behind these similarities include the nature of their industry and the resemblance of their scale of operations. Both the companies are operating in Australias retail sector and hence are subject to the same environmental changes. Moreover, the nature and scale of their operations are also similar. Besides this, the reason behind following the same financial reporting framework can also be attributed to operating in the same industry and hence being required to follow a generally accepted financial reporting framework. Differences can be seen in the composition of long-term debt and equity sources of finance of the two companies. While Wesfarmers has been conservative in their financing options and has relied only on corporate bonds and owners equity respectively, Woolworths has diversified its composition of both long-term debt and equity. The reason behind this may be attributed to the financing policies of the two companies and their comfort level with different sources. Summary The report highlighted the importance and drawbacks of obtaining finance from different sources i.e. short term and long term. Secondly, the report concludes that no company relies on only a single source of finance. They always use a blend of different sources to create an optimum financial leverage. Thirdly, despite having policies favouring long-term debt financing, both companies appeared to be reluctant in their use of debts. Lastly, irrespective of their size and reputation, both companies have poor operational efficiencies. Recommendations: Both companies are recommended to increase their debt financing. They should be wiser in selecting their creditors who have better credit policies. Both the companies are required to better manage their cash and liquidity. References Abdelsamad,M.H., 2010.A guide to capital expenditure analysis. New York: AMACOM. Ehrhardt, M. and Brigham, E., 2008. Corporate Finance: A Focused Approach. Cengage Learning. El-Firjani, E. R., Faraj, S. M. (2016). International Accounting Standards: Adoption, Implementation and Challenges. Economics and Political Implications of International Financial Reporting Standards, 231. Gibson, H. C., 2012. Financial Reporting and Analysis. Cengage Learning. Helfert,E.A., 2013.Techniques of financial analysis. Homewood, IL: Irwin. IBIS World. 2015. Wesfarmers Limted Premium Company Report Australia. [Online]. Available through: https://www.ibisworld.com.au/car/default.aspx?entid=69. [Accessed on 30 August 2016]. Jenster,P.V. and Hussey,D.E., 2011.Company analysis: Determining strategic capability. Chichester: Wiley. Kumar, A. and Francisco, M., 2005. Enterprise Size, Financing Patterns, and Credit Constraints in Brazil: Analysis of Data from the Investment Climate Assessment Survey. World Bank Publications. McArthur, T., 2013. Woolworths vs. Wesfarmers. [Online]. Available through: https://www.fool.com.au/2013/06/28/woolworths-vs-wesfarmers/. [Accessed on 30 August 2016]. Rigby, G., 2011. Types and Sources of Finance for Start-up and Growing Businesses: An Instant Guide. Harriman House Limited. Wesfarmers Resources. 2012. Wesfarmers Curragh Wins Top National Export Award. [Online]. Available through: https://www.wesresources.com.au/awards/awards-0. [Accessed on 29 August 2016]. Wesfarmers Sustainability Report 2012. 2012. [pdf]. Available through: https://www.wesfarmers.com.au/docs/default-source/reports/2012-sustainability-report.pdf?sfvrsn=0. [Accessed on 29 August 2016]. Wesfarmers. 2015. Annual Report 2015. [pdf]. Available through: https://www.asx.com.au/asxpdf/20150917/pdf/431d8fyj0rz8zy.pdf. [Accessed on 29 August 2016]. Who We Are? 2015. [Online]. Available through: https://www.wesfarmers.com.au/who-we-are/who-we-are. [Accessed on 30 August 2016]. Woolworths Limited. 2012. Woolworths Limited Awarded Disability Employment Award. [Online]. Available through: https://www.woolworthslimited.com.au/page/A_Great_Place_To_Work/Diversity/Woolworths_Limited_Awarded_Disability_Employment_Award/. [Accessed on 29 August 2016]. Woolworths Limited. 2015. Annual Report 2015. [pdf]. Available through: https://www.woolworthslimited.com.au/icms_docs/182381_Annual_Report_2015.pdf. [Accessed on 29 August 2016].

Inside every living thing lives millions of cells Essays - Biology

Inside every living thing lives millions of cells that help our body perform chemical reactions and functions that help us survive. Inside this very cell holds different organs, called organelles, and different products of the cell. Each part of the cell has its own function, like a factory that manufactures products. Plant and animal cells are alike in several ways. Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells, which means both cells include a nucleus. They have several features in common, such as the presence of a cell membrane, and cell organelles, like the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. The cell membrane is a semi-permeable structure. It only allows some things in (such as glucose,) and only some things out. (cellular waste is an example.) In the center of the cell is the nucleus, the brains of the cell. The nucleus controls what every part of the cell does. For example, it may tell the mitochondria to break down more food because the cell does not have enough energy. Of course, plant and animal cells also have many different features. This so the cell is able to supply the needs of the organism. A plant needs sunlight in order to survive, but animals do not. Because the needs of animals and plants are different, their organelles vary also. In addition to the cell membrane, plant cells also have a thick cell wall. This is to help the plant keep its long, rectangular shape. When looking under a microscope, cell walls are a great way to distinguish plant cells from animal cells. Plants are also autotrophs; they produce energy from sunlight through the process of photosynthesis, for which they use cell organelles called chloroplasts. However, plant cells do contain mitochondria. While both plant and animal cells contain vacuoles, plant cells have one large central vacuole that can take up to 90% of cell volume. In plant cells, the function of vacuoles is to store water and maintain turgidity of the cell. Animal cells, on the other hand, have one or more small vacuoles. Vacuoles in animal cells store water, ions and waste. They also do not have chloroplasts. In animal cells, energy is produced from a simple sugar called glucose, via the process ofcellular respiration. Cellular respiration occurs in mitochondria on animal cells, which are structurally somewhat analogous to chloroplasts, and also perform the function of producing energy. Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed organelles that contain an array ofenzymescapable of breaking down all types of biological polymersproteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, andlipids. They can only be found in animal cells. Lysosomes function as the digestive system of the cell, serving both to degrade material taken up from outside the cell and to digest obsolete components of the cell itself. In their simplest form, lysosomes are visualized as dense spherical vacuoles, but they can display considerable variation in size and shape as a result of differen ces in the materials that have been taken up for digestion.